Generated by All in One SEO v4.8.9, this is an llms.txt file, used by LLMs to index the site. # www.medicalradiationinfo.org Medical Physics Public Education ## Sitemaps - [XML Sitemap](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website. ## Pages - [Medical Physics Public Education](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/) - HealthcareMedical Physics isBeing part of a healthcare team Learn MoreImagingMedical Physics isEnhancing patient care through imaging Learn MoreTherapyMedical Physics isEnsuring precision treatment of cancer Learn MoreSafetyMedical Physics isManaging safe use of medical radiation Learn MoreTechnologyMedical Physics isDeveloping new technology to improve health Learn More What is Medical Physics? Learn how physicists are improving healthcare. Medical - [Radiation Therapy](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/) - Radiation Therapy Treatment Options What is a medical linear accelerator (linac)? What is an MR-linac? What is CyberKnife? What is Gamma Knife? What is brachytherapy? What is proton therapy? What is immunotherapy? Additional Radiation Therapy Topics Are there any side effects to radiation therapy? How do medical physicists ensure the quality of radiation therapy? How - [How is artificial intelligence (AI) used in radiation therapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/ai/) - Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to computer algorithms that emulate human intelligence. AI programs can be “trained” to perform complex tasks that are difficult or time-consuming for people. Thanks to advances in computing power and software models, AI capabilities have grown by leaps and bounds in recent years. AI is increasingly being used in many aspects - [Is radiation exposure safe for patients?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-safety/is-radiation-exposure-safe-for-patients/) - Radiation has been used in medicine for over a hundred years to help diagnose and treat diseases. Doctors and medical professionals only use radiation when they believe it will provide a medical benefit to the patient. Medical physicists play an important role in keeping patients safe by making sure the amount of radiation used is - [How Does Dental X-ray Imaging Work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/dental-x-ray-imaging/) - Many people first encounter medical imaging through routine dental checkups, which often involve an x-ray “screening” exam. In such exams, x-ray images are taken of the teeth in order to catch problems early, before symptoms arise. Dental imaging is the most common type of medical imaging, with roughly 100 million exams performed per year in - [Radiation Safety](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-safety/) - How do we protect ourselves from unwanted radiation exposure and accidents? Is radiation exposure safe for patients? How are medical facilities shielded for radiation? Radiation Safety Medical Radiation Medical Imaging Radiation Therapy - [What is fluoroscopy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/what-is-fluoroscopy/) - Fluoroscopy is a medical imaging modality that uses x-rays to obtain real-time moving images of a patient’s internal structures. It is commonly employed to visualize various organs, tissues, and physiological processes within the body, such as the skeletal, digestive, urinary, and cardiovascular systems. How does a fluoroscopy machine work? During a fluoroscopy procedure the patient - [Medical Imaging](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/) - Types of Medical Imaging What is x-ray imaging? How does dental x-ray imaging work? What is fluoroscopy? What is computed tomography (CT)? How does an MRI scanner work? How does a PET scanner work? How does an ultrasound scanner work? How does a mammography unit work? How does a gamma camera work? How does a - [Information for PhDs in Physics or Related Fields](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/careers/information-phds-physics-related-fields/) - If you have a PhD in physics or other STEM field, there is a pathway available to become a clinical medical physicist. This pathway consists of the following steps: CAMPEP-Accredited Medical Physics Certificate Program Medical physics certificate programs offer the didactic coursework required to enter a medical physics residency. They are affiliated with schools of - [What is proton therapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/proton-therapy-machines-work/) - Proton therapy is a form of radiation treatment which uses protons to deliver dose to cancer patients. Protons are tiny particles found in the nuclei of atoms, and they can be accelerated by specialized machines to high energies for radiation delivery. Where do the protons come from? The protons used in proton therapy come from - [What Is An MR-Linac?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/mr-linac/) - An MR-linac is a machine which combines the detailed imaging capabilities of a magnetic resonance (MR) scanner with the radiation delivery capabilities of a medical linear accelerator, or linac. The two commercial MR-linacs in wide use in recent years: the Elekta Unity (left) and ViewRay MRIdian (right). Some new options, such as the MagnetTx Aurora, - [How does an MRI scanner work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/mri-scanner-work/) - What is magnetic resonance imaging? Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a procedure that utilizes a strong magnetic field and time-varying electromagnetic waves to obtain images of a patient’s internal anatomy. Images courtesy of Siemens Healthcare GmbH . The human body is largely made of water (up to 60%), and each water molecule contains two hydrogen - [What is x-ray imaging?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/x-ray-machines/) - X-ray machines are imaging devices used to reveal the internal structure of patients. They make use of the fact that x-rays can penetrate a patient, and that this behavior varies in degree with the makeup of the patient’s body. What are x-rays? X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation—basically, they are a higher-energy form of - [What is CyberKnife?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/what-is-cyberknife/) - The CyberKnife is a specific model of medical linear accelerator mounted on a robotic arm. It is primarily used to treat relatively small tumors with high levels of radiation in only a few sessions. This approach is referred to as “stereotactic radiosurgery” when the brain is treated and as “stereotactic body radiation therapy” when other sites - [General Information on Medical Radiation](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/general-medical-radiation-information/) - What is radiation dose, and how is it measured? How does radiation affect us? Medical physics alphabet from A to Z, explained by medical physicists Medical Radiation Medical Imaging Radiation Therapy Radiation Safety - [What is radiation dose, and how is it measured?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/general-medical-radiation-information/radiation-units-measurement/) - What is radiation dose? When radiation interacts with matter, it deposits energy. Radiation dose is defined as the energy deposited by radiation per unit mass of material. There is a special unit for this quantity: the gray (often abbreviated as “Gy”), which is equal to one joule per kilogram. The same amount of radiation dose will not necessarily - [How does radiation affect us?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/general-medical-radiation-information/radiation-affect-us/) - Where does radiation come from? We are continually exposed to low levels of natural radiation that do not cause any serious health effects. This background radiation comes from the sun, outer space, and natural radioactive isotopes in the earth, air, and food. Small traces of radioactive atoms are present in the human body, including uranium, - [What should I ask or tell my doctor before imaging tests?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/ask-tell-doctor-imaging-tests/) - Clear communication with your healthcare team is important to ensuring you receive optimal care and treatment. Your medical conditions, medication, and prior imaging history could impact decisions about imaging techniques to be used. You should tell doctors if you: Are pregnant or may be pregnant Have metal implants or shrapnel in your body Have a - [All Questions](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-experts/all-questions/) - Filter Answers Filter by Category Diagnostic imaging basic concepts Medical physics profession MRI Nuclear medicine Pregnancy and motherhood Radiation protection of patients Radiation protection of the public Radiation protection of workers Radiation risks Radiation therapy basic concepts Science Filter by Category Diagnostic imaging basic conceptsMedical physics professionMRINuclear medicinePregnancy and motherhoodRadiation protection of patientsRadiation protection of - [Submit a Question](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/submit-a-question/) - AAPM’s expert panel is happy to answer your questions about medical physics! We ask for your email address to acknowledge receipt of your question and to provide you with a response. We may add your question to our public question & answer list, but your email address and identity will not be made public. URLThis - [Meet the Experts](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/submit-a-question/experts/) - The following AAPM members, representing medical facilities from across the US, have volunteered to answer your medical physics questions. One or more of the people listed below with special expertise in the subject area of your question will provide an answer in plain English! Alexander Pegram Amit Jain Children's Mercy Kansas City Christina Brunnquell University - [Ask the Experts!](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-experts/) - Welcome to AAPM’s “Ask The Experts” page! This is where you can get answers to your medical physics questions. We invite you to express your curiosity about physics in medicine, especially the applications that our team of experts specialize in – medical imaging and radiation therapy. We ask for your email address to acknowledge receipt - [History](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/discoveries/) - Discoveries in Medical Physics Learn about discoveries and developments in medical physics, both past and present! A History of Innovation and Discovery in Medical Physics The Birth of Medical Physics Acts and Institutions - [What is Medical Physics?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/medical-physics/) - Medical physics is being part of a healthcare team Medical physicists are professionals with expertise in the various types of radiation used to diagnose and treat disease. They work with physicians and other clinical personnel to ensure that radiation is used safely and effectively in the healthcare environment. Medical physics is enhancing patient care through - [Information for Undergraduate Students](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/careers/information-undergraduate-students/) - To become a medical physicist, you first need an undergraduate degree in physics or other physical science. After acquiring your undergraduate degree, you have two options: Graduate degree in Medical Physics Master of Science (MS) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Professional graduate degree in Medical Physics Doctor of Medical Physics (DMP) There are many graduate programs - [Information for High School Students](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/careers/information-high-school-students/) - The purpose of a high school education is to prepare maturing teenagers for the transition into self-sufficient adults contributing to a vibrant society. High school cultivates the skills and academic talents necessary for young adults to become the next generation of business leaders, entrepreneurs, skilled laborers, teachers, doctors, engineers, health care professionals, and other workers - [Careers in Medical Physics and Related Professions](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/careers/careers-medical-physics-related-professions/) - Healthcare policy professionals predict an 18% growth in healthcare jobs from 2016 to 2026 due to both general population growth and an increase in the number of aging citizens requiring additional medical services. This growth includes careers in medical physics as medical technology continues to advance and improve ways to image and diagnose medical problems, - [Timeline: The Birth of Medical Physics Acts and Institutions](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/discoveries/birth-of-medical-physics/) - The Birth of Medical Physics Acts and Institutions 1900s 1900 The American Roentgen Ray Society (ARRS), “the first and oldest radiology society in the United States,” is founded. 1909 The The Institut du Radium (Radium Institute) of Paris is founded. 1915 The Western Roentgen Society (precursor to the Radiological Society of North America [RSNA]) is - [Timeline: A History of Innovation and Discovery](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/discoveries/history-innovation-discovery/) - A History of Innovation and Discovery 1800s 1895 Wilhem Conrad Roentgen produces and discovers x-rays. 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers natural radioactivity. 1898 Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie announce the discovery of radium, a radioactive element. 1900s 1901 The first Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded to Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen for discovering x-rays. 1903 The - [Careers](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/careers/) - Interested in a Medical Physics Career? Interested in healthcare, technology, and physics? Read on to learn how to become a medical physicist! Careers in Medical Physics and Related Professions Information for Undergraduate Students Information for High School Students Information for PhDs in Physics or Related Fields References SDAMPP Student Guide to a Medical Physics Career - [Radiation and Medicine](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/) - Learn About Radiation and Medicine! Click the buttons below to find information on medical radiation, medical imaging, radiation therapy, and radiation safety. Have a question that isn’t answered here? Submit your questions at Ask the Experts! Medical Radiation Medical Imaging Radiation Therapy Radiation Safety - [How is radiation used for medical diagnosis?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/radiation-used-medical-diagnosis/) - Radiation is energy, in the form of particles or waves, that moves from place to place. Most people are familiar with light, heat, and sound as types of radiation in everyday life. When radiation travels through an object it is generally affected by the material inside that object. We can use this behavior to “see” - [How does a SPECT scanner work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/spect-scanner-work/) - SPECT stands for “Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography.” A SPECT scanner is a machine that detects the distribution of radiopharmaceutical concentrations in different parts of the body and reconstructs it in three dimensions using a computer. A radiopharmaceutical is a drug to which radioactive atoms are attached so the location where the drug is concentrating - [How does a gamma camera work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/gamma-camera-work/) - The gamma camera is a machine that allows two-dimensional imaging of physical processes within the body using a radiopharmaceutical. A radiopharmaceutical is a drug to which radioactive atoms are attached so the location where the drug is concentrating in the body can be easily detected. There are different types of these drugs designed by manufacturers - [How does a mammography unit work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/mammography-unit-work/) - A mammography unit is a machine that uses low-dose x-rays to screen for and diagnose breast cancer. X-rays are produced by an x-ray tube inside of the mammography unit. The unit is equipped to produce x-rays at energies that allow better viewing of breast pathology. The x-rays pass through the breast and are detected by - [How are medical facilities shielded for radiation?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-safety/radiation-shielding-medical-facilities/) - Hospitals and medical clinics often use radiation-emitting materials and equipment to diagnose and treat patients. The radiation shielding of such facilities is generally incorporated into their building design to ensure radiation exposure to staff and the public is kept below the safe levels mandated by governmental agencies. Examples of common built-in shielding include thick concrete - [How does a PET scanner work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/pet-scanner-work/) - PET is an acronym for “Positron Emission Tomography.” It refers to a technique for imaging the inside of a patient’s body using radiation emitted by special drugs called radiopharmaceuticals. A radiopharmaceutical is a drug containing small amounts of radioactivity. Its radioactive atoms are attached to molecules designed to collect in certain body tissues and organs, - [What is computed tomography (CT)?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/computed-tomography-ct-imaging/) - What is a CT Scanner?What is a CT Scanner? A computed tomography (CT) scanner is a special type of x-ray machine which rotates around a patient to obtain cross-sectional images of their body—that is, slice-by-slice views of their insides. Most modern-day CT scanners consist of an x-ray source mounted on a circular ring, or gantry, opposite an - [What is immunotherapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/radiation-therapy-immunotherapy-cancer/) - What is the immune system? The human body’s immune system is a complex network of biological structures and processes which has evolved to combat foreign biological, chemical, and physical threats. It operates down to the molecular level via chemical interactions within and between cells. The immune system is always active, monitoring the body for damage - [What is Gamma Knife?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/what-is-gamma-knife/) - Gamma Knife is a machine designed to deliver high doses of therapeutic radiation to small abnormalities in the brain. Diseases treated with Gamma Knife include cancerous tumors, abnormal blood vessels (“arteriovenous malformations,” or AVMs), and malfunctioning nerves (trigeminal neuralgia, for example). This type of radiotherapy is called “stereotactic radiosurgery” because it is similar in spirit - [What is brachytherapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/what-is-brachytherapy/) - Brachytherapy refers to radiation treatments performed at short distances. (The prefix “brachy” comes from the Greek word for “short.”) This typically involves placing small radioactive sources inside or next to the patient’s body, usually to treat cancer. Brachytherapy sources are usually small pellets of radioactive material, though in some cases small electronic x-ray devices may be - [What is a medical linear accelerator (linac)?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/medical-linear-accelerators-linacs/) - A medical linear accelerator, or linac, is a particular type of machine that produces high-energy x-ray or electron beams for use in radiation therapy. This method of treatment is commonly referred to as “external-beam radiation therapy” because the radiation beams are generated at a distance outside the patient’s body. Examples of different medical linear accelerators (linacs). - [How does an ultrasound scanner work?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/ultrasound-scanner-work/) - An ultrasound scanner works by sending high frequency sound waves from a probe into a patient’s body and measuring reflections of those waves from tissue boundaries. Sound waves travel through different body tissues at different speeds The speed of sound in “soft tissue” (such as skin, fat, and muscle) is nearly constant at about 1500 - [How do we protect ourselves from unwanted radiation exposure and accidents?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-safety/protect-unwanted-radiation-exposure-accidents/) - What is ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation? Low levels of radiation are all around us in different forms. Some examples include ultraviolet radiation from the sun, electromagnetic waves in a microwave oven or solar flares from the sun, and radon gas in the environment. Various sources of radiation are also used for medical purposes such - [How do medical physicists ensure the quality of radiation therapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/radiation-therapy-quality-assurance-medical-physicist/) - How are medical physicists involved in radiation treatment? Radiation treatment involves many steps and the use of advanced technologies. Here are just a few of the actions required to treat a patient: Calibrating radiation machines to deliver dose accurately Creating computer models of machines’ radiation output Imaging the patient in their treatment position Creating an - [Are there any side effects to radiation therapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/radiation-therapy/side-effects-radiation-therapy/) - After a cancer diagnosis, your health care team will assess your best treatment options. Those options may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, or some combination of those approaches. A side effect is a secondary effect from a medical treatment (as an example, many people have heard that a common side effect for some cancer treatments is hair - [What is a contrast agent, and why is it needed?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/contrast-agent-needed/) - A contrast agent is a substance used to enhance the visualization of a body part during a diagnostic imaging procedure. The agent may be introduced into a bodily cavity, consumed orally, or injected intravenously. Some examples of contrast agents include barium (for x-rays), iodine (for x-rays), gadolinium (for MRI), and bubbles (for ultrasound). Contrast agents - [What other types of imaging might be used?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/radiationandmedicine/medical-imaging/types-imaging-might-used/) - Aside from x-rays, CT, MRI, ultrasound, PET, and SPECT, there are other medical imaging modalities that are sometimes used for certain diseases. Some of these techniques are relatively new. The imaging modalities presented here are for informational purposes only. Many of these modalities are still active areas of research and may not have enough evidence to support - [Sitemap](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/sitemap/) - Pages Medical Physics Public Education What is Medical Physics? History Timeline: A History of Innovation and Discovery Timeline: The Birth of Medical Physics Acts and Institutions Radiation and Medicine General Information on Medical Radiation How does radiation affect us? What is radiation dose, and how is it measured? Medical Imaging How is radiation used for - [Privacy Policy](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/privacy-policy/) - Use of this site constitutes your acceptance to the following terms and conditions. Terms and Conditions This web site was prepared by, and is the property of AAPM. All content included on the site, including without limitation, content within the site, such as text, graphics, button icons, images, and software (“Material”), is the exclusive property ## Experts - [You Zhang](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/you-zhang/) - [Xiaochun Wang](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/xiaochun-wang/) - [James Ververs](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/james-ververs/) - [Ryan Underwood](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/ryan-underwood/) - [Daniel Saenz](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/daniel-saenz/) - [Francesco Ria](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/francesco-ria/) - [Francisco Reynoso](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/francisco-reynoso/) - [Alexander Pegram](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/alexander-pegram/) - [Geoffrey Nelson](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/geoffrey-nelson/) - [Richard Nawfel](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/richard-nawfel/) - [John Mullins](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/john-mullins/) - [Wen-Ching Liu](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/wen-ching-liu/) - [Teh Lin](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/teh-lin/) - [Robert Krauss](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/robert-krauss/) - [Amit Jain](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/amit-jain/) - [Megan Hyun](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/megan-hyun/) - [John Holmes](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/john-holmes/) - [Daniel Goldberg-Zimring](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/daniel-goldberg-zimring/) - [Eric Gingold](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/eric-gingold/) - [Lisa Genovese](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/lisa-genovese/) - [Piotr Dubrowski](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/piotr-dubrowski/) - [Richard Castillo](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/richard-castillo/) - [Justin Cantley](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/justin-cantley/) - [Martin Bues](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/martin-bues/) - [Thomas Banks](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/thomas-banks/) - [Christina Brunnquell](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/expert/christina-brunnquell/) ## Q&As - [Hi does the CTDl volume on the dose page for an abdominal pelvic CT include the scatter from having the arms down , extended scan to the knee and a brace on the femur ? I am not sure if it includes the scatter for the in field organs . I know it doesn’t include for the out of field organs . Can you tell me and also do you know anyone to hire to do Monte Carlo calculations for CT scans ? Thank you](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hi-does-the-ctdl-volume-on-the-dose-page-for-an-abdominal-pelvic-ct-include-the-scatter-from-having-the-arms-down-extended-scan-to-the-knee-and-a-brace-on-the-femur-i-am-not-sure-if-it-includes-t/) - [Hello, If I understand the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) report 293 correctly, the SSDE and CTDIvol values for children are approximately the same. This is because, as I understand it, the fH16 factor (conversion factor) is quite small even for newborn infants (e.g. between 0.9 and 1.05 for a one-year-old child). In fact, for children older than 1 year, the fH16 value becomes smaller and therefore the SSDE value also becomes smaller. This means, for example, that the CDTIvol value shown in the dose report of a 3-year-old child after a CT scan should actually be smaller. Please allow me to ask 4 questions about all this: 1- Is my summary above correct? 3- Is this formula correct to convert CDTIvol to SSDE? SSDE= fH16*CTDVol 3- How can I convert SSDE value to effective dose? 4- When we calculate with the conversion factors in the AAPM 204 report, sometimes there is a big difference between SSDE and CDTIvol, why do the conversion factors in the AAPM 293 report do not cause a big difference between SSDE and CTDIvol? Yours sincerely.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-if-i-understand-the-american-association-of-physicists-in-medicine-aapm-report-293-correctly-the-ssde-and-ctdivol-values-for-children-are-approximately-the-same-this-is-because-as-i-unders/) - [Hello, I want to calculate how much effective dose my child (6 months old, male) received as a result of a computed radiography scan he had in 2016. On the image, it is written “Stitching Spine AP”, however the image looks like a Pelvis scan actually. There is not much information in the DICOM outputs after the scan unfortunately, so I do not have kVp, mAs, grid, SID, filtration, beam collimation, DAP, ESD etc. information. But I saw in an article on the internet that the "exposure index (EI)" value is a parameter that can give an idea about the patient dose. I am copying the article link below: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S107881742030050X The brand of the CR device on which the scan was performed is Konica Minolta (manufacturer model name: 0817 and station name: CS-2). In the DICOM outputs, the value of tag 0018,1405 (relative x-ray exposure) is given as 130. The value for tag 0018,6000 (sensitivity) is given as 250. As I understand from below links, these are the manufacturer-specific units of radiation dose measured on the detector (or imaging plate): https://dicomlookup.com/dicomtags/(0018,1405) https://www.dicomlookup.com/dicomtags/(0018,6000) I thought these were the tags I should focus on, and I tried to find radiation values corresponding to these units on the internet. I found an article which shows that the value of 130 in tag 0018,1405 for Konica Minolta corresponds to a rough estimate of 20μGy (0.02 mGy) of detector exposure. Article link is below, shown on table 2: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3076558/ As I understand it, this value is the value absorbed by the detector, not by patient. However, assuming that the patient dose would be similar, I tried to calculate the equivalent dose, and by setting the radiation weighting factor (Wr) to 1 (since it is X-ray), I calculated the equivalent dose as 0.02 mSv. For effective dose, organ/tissue factor comes into play, as far as I have read, each tissue has different weight factors, and the sum of these factors for the whole body is “1”. I saw on a website (link below) that the tissue weight factor for bone-marrow (red), colon, lung, stomach, breast, remaining tissues is a value like “0.72”. https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/security-scanners/en/figtableboxes/tissue-weighting-factors.htm Therefore, I calculated the total effective dose of my child as 0.02×0.72=0.014 mSv. My specific questions are as follows, I would be very happy if you could answer them: 1- Is there a place where I can officially find the exposure index values of Konica Minolta CR device? I heard that there is information on this subject in AAPM TG116, but I couldn't find it. Here is the link: https://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_116.pdf 2- I don't think it would be right to calculate my child's effective dose from the absorbed dose on the detector, but considering the thickness of a 6-month-old child, I guess there won't be a big difference between my child’s absorbed dose and the dose absorbed by the detector, what do you think? 3- I think that the patient's age should also be taken into account when calculating the effective dose, but I don't know how to add it to the calculation, and I can't find any information on the internet about such a parameter being used for CR scans, what do you think? 4- Can the doses corresponding to the exposure index vary according to the calibration of the device? Does “calibration topic” make a big difference? 5- While the average effective dose for “pelvis” is given as 0.7 mSv on a table shown at hps.org website (https://hps.org/hpspublications/articles/dosesfrommedicalradiation.html), I believe that the value I calculated (0.014 mSv) for my 6-month-old child is not possible to be correct, what do you think? If my above calculation is wrong, may I kindly ask you to make corrections on my calculations step by step to make me understand better? Thank you very much for your time in advance. P.S. I don't have a medical physics or medical education, I'm just an engineer trying to understand what I read and is very worried about my child, so I'm sorry if there are any fundamental mistakes in what I wrote.. Those I have contacted about this topic have always given me general answers based on literature data, but I would like to know the exact effective dose based on the actual numbers from my child's scan, please help me. Wishing you all a healthy new year. Best regards.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-i-want-to-calculate-how-much-effective-dose-my-child-6-months-old-male-received-as-a-result-of-a-computed-radiography-scan-he-had-in-2016-on-the-image-it-is-written-stitching-spi/) - [Hello, in 2020 when my daughter was 4 1/2 years old she had an ear infection that would not go away with antibiotics, tubes and other treatments. The doctor presented an option of an "Xray" since no other diagnostic procedures were available to due Covid. He pushed to have us do the adenoidectomy but I chose the but when I got to the imaging center I found out it would be a CT of her temporal bone. I went ahead with it with little information from her doctor/the radiologist on radiation exposure. I called recently to get the dose and they said she received 55.75 mgy and the report shows DLP 420 with a note that says "pediatric reductions used." On the phone, a radiologist from the facility she went to said "ooh, I usually turn it down" when reading the CTDI mgy which has caused me great distress the past year. My question is, should I be concerned about the amount of radiation for this one time exposure for my daughter and approximately how much MSV is this?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-in-2020-when-my-daughter-was-4-1-2-years-old-she-had-an-ear-infection-that-would-not-go-away-with-antibiotics-tubes-and-other-treatments-the-doctor-presented-an-option-of-an-xray-since-no/) - [hi, I have two questions. My first question Is by administering contrast when doing a CAT scan does that increase the amount of msv a person will receive or is the msv the same as without contrast and does the amount of radiation absorb by the organs increase ? For example if an abdominal /pelvic CT scan is 12 msv without contrast , using the same machine if contrast was then given would the total still be 12 msv but the amount of radiation absorbed by the organs be higher with the scan done with contrast as opposed to the one done without contrast ? I also wanted to ask when they say a hip x-ray is 0.6 msv does that mean for only one view or is that for two or even three views ? Thank you](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hi-i-have-two-questions-my-first-question-is-by-administering-contrast-when-doing-a-cat-scan-does-that-increase-the-amount-of-msv-a-person-will-receive-or-is-the-msv-the-same-as-without-contrast-and/) - [How can I find your guidelines for CT radiation limits? I am 60 years old, both my parents with cancer (mom died), and the insurer recommended me to do a hip CT even though the orthopedic doctor clearly wrote MRI in the referral. I understand the insurer's preference to save money but given my radiation concern, exacerbated by age and family history and the fact that I already had 5 XRay imaging sessions in the past 12 months (three dental and 2 chest views) - I of course prefer to go for the MRI option. I tried to find in your site any official reference (because they said that "according to the AAPM there is zero risk for me") - but failed. Can you please advise - considering my history, age, and previous xray sessions this year - what would you consider as an exposure to avoid? Is there really a zero risk? Shouldn't I insist on the MRI - as recommended by the doctor? Basically I see the discrepancy between the clinical doctor and the administrational doctor. And I need to know that they don't just use your establishment name in order to "disarm" me and save some dollars... Your insights will be highly appreciated. Especially if you would have advised to insist on the MRI (all considered)](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/how-can-i-find-your-guidelines-for-ct-radiation-limits-i-am-60-years-old-both-my-parents-with-cancer-mom-died-and-the-insurer-recommended-me-to-do-a-hip-ct-even-though-the-orthopedic-doctor-clear/) - [Hi I am not sure if my question went through was I was resubmitting . I have 2 questions . First is it safe to do a full T3 MRI if the spine including lumbar and the a few hours later in the same day do an abdominal pelvic CT ? Does that increase cancer risk ? Second i know they say that MRIs are safe but if they use the sane RF as cell phones then why do they say cell phones cause cancer ? Can MRIs cause cancer like the cell phones can possibly do ? If that is a possibility then could it be dangerous to do an MRI before a CT scan ? Could the heating up of the tissue prior to x rays with the CT lead to more DNA damage ? Thank you , Lisa](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hi-i-am-not-sure-if-my-question-went-through-was-i-was-resubmitting-i-have-2-questions-first-is-it-safe-to-do-a-full-t3-mri-if-the-spine-including-lumbar-and-the-a-few-hours-later-in-the-same-day/) - [When talking about the risks of radiation in X-rays, often it is compared to background radiation. However, scans are usually aimed at a concentrated area of the body in very short amount of time, whereas I assume background radiation is spread across the whole body. Can the two be compared when we talk about risk to individual organs? Does 1 mSv aimed at one part of the body does more damage to that part than 1 mSv worth of background radiation?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/when-talking-about-the-risks-of-radiation-in-x-rays-often-it-is-compared-to-background-radiation-however-scans-are-usually-aimed-at-a-concentrated-area-of-the-body-in-very-short-amount-of-time-whe/) - [My 6 week old baby just had a skull X-Ray that consisted of 5 X-Ray images. Her radiation dose was estimated to be 0.4 mSv. I have been worried about her exposure to this radiation and was wondering if you could help me understand what risk this puts her at for future complications or cancer being that her age is so young? Thank you so much for your help.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/my-6-week-old-baby-just-had-a-skull-x-ray-that-consisted-of-5-x-ray-images-her-radiation-dose-was-estimated-to-be-0-4-msv-i-have-been-worried-about-her-exposure-to-this-radiation-and-was-wondering-i/) - [My name is Mannah Kaniini, an MSc. student at the University of Zambia, in Zambia. Im doing a research as a requirement for me to graduate. the field of the project i inted to do is in the medical physics field. I have been reading a lot of your publications which i have found quite useful so far. I do have a question on the dosimetric indices such as DHI,COIN,CI,CN,OI, etc. what could be acceptable value for each? from most studies i have seen so far they just generally state the fact that for the CI,COIN and other a value close to 1 is ideal while for DNR and OI 0 is ideal. Is there a threshold or range to accept these values especially for a cervical implant](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/my-name-is-mannah-kaniini-an-msc-student-at-the-university-of-zambia-in-zambia-im-doing-a-research-as-a-requirement-for-me-to-graduate-the-field-of-the-project-i-inted-to-do-is-in-the-medical-ph/) - [Hello there, I'm employed at Big Sky Medical Center situated in Big Sky, Montana. My current quest involves obtaining a CT Dose chart that outlines the DLP and CTDI ranges for the average patient dimensions across various body regions. My intention is to display this chart in our CT Tech section for their reference. Interestingly, the ACR didn't have precisely what I needed and actually suggested reaching out to you. I greatly appreciate your time and assistance. Regards, Mike](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-there-im-employed-at-big-sky-medical-center-situated-in-big-sky-montana-my-current-quest-involves-obtaining-a-ct-dose-chart-that-outlines-the-dlp-and-ctdi-ranges-for-the-average-patient-dim/) - [how many hospitals/clinics perform radionuclide therapy in the United States?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/how-many-hospitals-clinics-perform-radionuclide-therapy-in-the-united-states/) - [I recently had a CT scan of the head in an emergency room. My medical record shows the radiation dose as DLP 582 mGY-cm. Can you tell me what this equals in terms of millisieverts?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/i-recently-had-a-ct-scan-of-the-head-in-an-emergency-room-my-medical-record-shows-the-radiation-dose-as-dlp-582-mgy-cm-can-you-tell-me-what-this-equals-in-terms-of-millisieverts/) - [Are we as medical physicists considered, "Healthcare providers"?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/are-we-as-medical-physicists-considered-healthcare-providers/) - [Hi, Wondering if there is a lifetime cumulative occupational dose limit or recommendation? Thanks.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hi-wondering-if-there-is-a-lifetime-cumulative-occupational-dose-limit-or-recommendation-thanks/) - [If an exterior output vibration signal/wave is created to target a hollow bone cavity under the skin surface, and if the hollow space within that bone cavity is empty vs. fluid filled, would there be a dissimilar vibration return signal to differentiate between the empty vs. fluid filled cavity space, and if so, why?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-i-have-the-following-question-please-if-an-exterior-output-vibration-signal-wave-is-created-to-target-a-hollow-bone-cavity-under-the-skin-surface-and-if-the-hollow-space-within-that-bone-cavi/) - [What is the recommended CT dose limit for c-spines?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/what-is-the-recommended-ct-dose-limit-for-c-spines/) - [Kindly could you please tell me what the cons, dangers and side effects are for MRI? Thank you.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/kindly-could-you-please-tell-me-what-the-cons-dangers-and-side-effects-are-for-mri-thank-you/) - [Hello. I am 36 years old now and have had undiagnosed illness for years. I have had a few CT scans, 3 nuclear stress tests, a few x-rays, ultrasounds, MRIs, and a combined CT abdomen/pelvis/chest (300 mGycm). I’m worried about radiation exposure. Does this sound a lot to you and can you please break the exposure levels down to me in layman’s terms?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/hello-i-am-36-years-old-now-and-have-had-undiagnosed-illness-for-years-i-have-had-a-few-ct-scans-3-nuclear-stress-tests-a-few-x-rays-ultrasounds-mris-and-a-combined-ct-abdomen-pelvis-chest-300/) - [How does international and experienced clinical medical physicists becomes board certified to seek employment in the US?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/how-does-international-and-experienced-clinical-medical-physicists-becomes-board-certified-to-seek-employment-in-the-us/) - [I recently had a brain aneurysm treated, the first treatment included stents and coils and had around 2140 mgy of radiation. Recently, about 6 months later I had an angiogram and they saw coil compaction and added more coils, with the second treatment having around 2100 mgy. My question is, from these did I increase my cancer risk significantly?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/i-recently-had-a-brain-aneurysm-treated-the-first-treatment-included-stents-and-coils-and-had-around-2140-mgy-of-radiation-recently-about-6-months-later-i-had-an-angiogram-and-they-saw-coil-compact/) - [I am Colombian medical physicist (10 experience years in radiation therapy) and I would like to work as medical physicist in United States, its possible take a residencia and next present the three parts of ABR?, what I have to do? Thanks.](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/i-am-colombian-medical-physicist-10-experience-years-in-radiation-therapy-and-i-would-like-to-work-as-medical-physicist-in-united-states-its-possible-take-a-residencia-and-next-present-the-three-pa/) - [My cousin is worried about cancer since his daughter is scheduled for a head CT soon? How can I convince him that the head CT dose would not lead to cancer?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/my-cousin-is-worried-about-cancer-since-his-daughter-is-scheduled-for-a-head-ct-soon-how-can-i-convince-him-that-the-head-ct-dose-would-not-lead-to-cancer/) - [Shielding during mammography](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/high-risk-breast-cancer-screening-mammogram-last-week-now-believe-may-pregnant-time-imaging-technician-didnt-use-shielding-lap/) - [Breastfeeding after CXR?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/patients-need-cease-breastfeeding-chest-x-ray-exam/) - [Breastfeeding after CT w/contrast](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/do-patients-need-to-cease-breastfeeding-after-a-ct-with-contrast-agents/) - [Breastfeeding after PET/CT](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/patients-need-cease-breastfeeding-pet-ct/) - [Cumulative radiation dose](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/ten-10-ct-scans-last-year-need-worry-cumulative-radiation-may-cause-radiation-induced-cancer/) - [What does a medical physicist do?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/gravity-affect-time/) - [What is a medical physicist?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/test/) - [Safety after EBRT or HDR](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radioactive-go-home-ebrt-hdr-procedure/) - [Prostate seeds](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/prostate-seeds-work/) - [External beam treatment time](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/machine-know-stop-radiation-beam/) - [MRI noises](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/interpret-sounds-hear-mri-exam/) - [What is proton therapy?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/what-is-proton-therapy/) - [MP like another profession?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/medical-physics-like-medical-profession/) - [Fractionation](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radiation-therapy-spread-many-treatments-cases-given-fewer-treatments-others/) - [Family member risk](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/pregnant-husband-got-dental-x-ray-exam-last-week-many-days-sleep-separate-room-not-cause-harm-child/) - [Online risk calculator](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/found-many-websites-calculate-cancer-risk-related-radiological-exam-one-accurate/) - [Harm vs benefit](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radiation-harmful-humans-can-also-used-treat-cancer/) - [RT glow?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radiation-treatment-wont-make-glow-will/) - [X-ray imaging](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/x-ray-imaging-work/) - [Dose volume histogram](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/dose-volume-histogram/) - [Healthy tissue sparing](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/know-radiation-x-rays-penetrate-bodies-prevent-radiation-damaging-healthy-tissues-beyond-tumor-targeted-radiation-stop/) - [Is MRI safe?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri-safe-heard/) - [Protons vs photons](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/protons-differ-photons-treatment-cancer/) - [Does radiation treatment hurt?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radiation-treatment-hurt/) - [In radiation therapy, how do you know you’re giving patients the right amount of radiation?](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/ask-the-expert/radiation-therapy-know-youre-giving-patients-right-amount-radiation/) ## QA Categories - [Radiation therapy basic concepts](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/radiation-therapy-basic-concepts/) - [Diagnostic imaging basic concepts](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/diagnostic-imaging-basic-concepts/) - [Medical physics profession](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/medical-physics-profession/) - [Radiation protection of patients](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/radiation-protection-of-patients/) - [Radiation protection of the public](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/radiation-protection-of-the-public/) - [MRI](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/mri/) - [Pregnancy and motherhood](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/pregnancy-and-motherhood/) - [Radiation risks](https://www.medicalradiationinfo.org/qa-category/radiation-risks/)